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Lesia Ukrainka

Larissa Kossach (pen-name Lesia Ukrainka) was born in Novgorod-Volynsky on February 25, 1871 which is now in Zhytomir Region. Her father was a lawyer and her mother was a Ukrainian writer (pen-name Olena Pchilka). Her sister was married to Mykhailo Dragomanov, a scholar public figure and political figure, who was to play a great role in Lesia's life

When Lesia was nine, her parents moved to the town of Lutsk and settled at an estate near Kovel. Because of weak health and the absence of school with instruction in the Ukrainian language, Lesia received education at home. She had a remarkable aptitude for the humanities.

Lesia's close ties with distinguished public and cultural figures of her time played a positive role in her formation as a poet. Apart from Dragomanov and Franko, the Kossaches friends included the composer M. Lysenko, the poet, playwright and one of the founders of the Ukrainian professional theatre

N. Starytsky, the bibliographer M. Komarov, and the poet V. Samiylenko. Such a milieu made Lesia try her hand at writing poetry early. At the age of nine she wrote her first verses, and at 13 her first poem was published in the Lviv magazine “Zoria”. From then on her poetry appeared regularly in the Ukrainian, publications.

Unfortunately, the outset of her literary career coincided with the first symptoms of what was then an incurable disease tuberculosis of the bones. Her poor health made her travel from one warm country to another Vienna, Crimea, Italy, Georgia, Egypt.

In 1893 her book of verse, “On Wings of Songs”, was published. It was favourably received both by the readers and critics. Then followed her books of verse “Thoughts and Dreams”, “Responses”, which earned her, alongside I. Franko, a leading place in Ukrainian literature at the turn of this century. Just then she toned to playwriting. Her first works of drama were based on subjects from the Bible. Among her best plays are “The Forest Song” and “The Stone Host”.

Beginning with 1894 Lesia 1ived in Kyiv. Here she started learning foreign languages. Later on she read and spoke English as well as Ukrainian. With a full command of German, French Italian and English she could write not only prose, but also poetry in all these languages.

  L. Ukrainka died on August 1, 1913 in Georgia, and was buried in Kyiv. Her works reveal the dominant feature of her talent exceptional public sensitivity and the ability to grasp and express in vivid images the idea and tendencies of her time.

OUTSTANDING PEOPLE OF UKRAINE

In the history of humanity there have always been people whose actions and ideas produced a great impact on the Jives of other people. The have made a great contribution to our country. For this reason they are called outstanding. There are a lot of outstanding people famous for their contribution to our science. They are scientists, musicians, experienced and skilled workers of medicine and education .

Vladimir Vernadsky, for instance, was the first president of Ukrainian Academy of Sciences. He was born in 1863. Vladimir Vernadsky was the first in our country to introduce the spectral method for the solution of geochemical problems. He developed special study to the composition of the Earth's crust, the ocean and the atmosphere. Vladimir Vernadsky was the founder of the modern doctrine on the biosphere. His findings greatly contributed to the world science.

Eugene Paton is another great scientist whom we take pride in. He was born in 1870 in the family of a Russian ambassador and received his education abroad. In 1904 Paton moved to Kyiv to work and teach at the Kyiv Politechnical Institute. He was a professor and the head of the chair for nearly thirty years at the Institute. Eugene Paton was the first to apply electro-welding in bridge-construction. Under his guidance a welded bridge was built across the Dnipro river in Kyiv. It is now known as the Paton Bridge. It is 1.5 km long. In 1930 Paton organised the Research Institute of Electro-welding at the Academy of Science.

Nowadays the Academy of Science of Ukraine includes many outstanding scientists and research workers famous for their discoveries. Great success has been achieved by the Paton Research Institute of Electric Welding, the Research, institute of Cybernetics, Super-hard Materials, and others.

Bohdan Khmelnytsky

Khmelnytsky, Bohdan (Fedir) Zinovii, was born in 1695-6, died 6 August 1657 in Chyhyryn. Hetman of the Zaporozhian Host from 1648 to 1657, founder of the Hetman state (1648-1782). By birth he belonged to the Ukrainian lesser nobility and bore the Massalski, and later the Abdank, coat of arms. His father, M.Khmelnytsky, served as an officer under the Polish crown hetman S. Zolkiewski and his mother, according to some sources, was of Cossack descent. Little Is known about Khmelnytsky's education. Apparently, he received his elementary schooling in Ukrainian and his secondary and higher education in Polish at a Jesuit college, possibly in Jaroslaw, but more probably In Lviv. He completed his schooling before 1620 and acquired a broad knowledge of world history and fluency in Polish and Latin. Later he acquired a knowledge of Turkish, Tatar and French. The Battle of Cecora (1620), in which he lost his father and was captured by the Turks, was his first military action. After spending two years in Istanbul, he was ransomed by his mother and returned to Ukraine.

There is no reliable information about Khmelnytsky's activities from 1622 to 1637. Only one fact is certain — that in the 1620s he Joined the registered Cossacks. Sometime between 1625 and 1627 he married Hanna Somko, a Cossack's daughter from Pereiaslav, and settled on his patrimonial estate in Subotiv near Chyhyryn. By 1637 he attained the high office of military chancellor. By the Ordinance of 1638 the Polish, king revoked the autonomy of the Zaporozhian Host and placed the registered Cossacks under the direct authority of tire Polish military command in Ukraine. The office of military chancellor, which Khmelnytsky had held, was abolished and Khmelnytsky was demoted to a captain of Chyhyryn regiment. In the fall of 1638 he visited Warsaw with a Cossack delegation to petition King WIadyslaw IV Vasa to restore the former Cossack privileges.

In the next few years Khmelnytsky, devoted his attention mostly to his estates 1ft the Chyhyryn region, but in, 1645 he served with a detachment of 2.000 - 2.500 Cossack in France, and probably took part in the siege of Dunkirk. By this time his reputation for leadership was such that King WIadyslaw, in putting together a coalition of Poland, Venice, and other states against Turkey, turned to him to obtain the support of the Zaporozhian Cossacks. These events contributed to his reputation in Ukraine, Poland, and abroad, and provided him with wide military and political contacts.

Khmelnytsky, however, had been regarded with suspicion for many years by the Polish magnates in Ukraine who were politically opposed to King WIadyslaw. In spite of the fact that Khmelnytsky received a royal title to Subotiv in 1646, the Chygyryn assistant vicegerent Czaplinski raided the estate, seized movable property, and disrupted the manor's economy. Khmelnytsky's small son was severely beaten at the marketplace In Chyhyryn. Under these conditions of violence and terror Khmelnytsky's wife died in 1647.

At the and of December 1647 Khmelnytsky departed for Zaporlzhia with a small (300-500-man) detachment. There he was elected hetman. This event marked the beginning of a new Cossack uprising, which quickly turned into national revolution.

The great uprising of 1648 was one of the most cataclysmic events in Ukrainian history. It Is difficult to find an uprising of comparable magnitude, intensity, and impact in the history of early modern Europe. A crucial element in the revolt was the leadership of Hetman B.Khmelnytsky, whose exceptional organisational, military, and political talents to a large extent accounted for its success.

Khmelnytsky was married three times. His first wife, who was the ''mother of all his children, died prematurely. His second wife, Matrona, whom he married in early 1649, was the former wife of his enemy D.Czaplinski. In 1651 while Khmelnytsky was away on a military campaign, she was executed for conspiracy and adultery by his son Tymish. In the summer of 1651 Khmelnytsky married Hanna Zolotarenko, a Cossack woman from Korsun and the widow of Col Pylyp (Pylypets). Surviving him by many years, she entered a monastery in 1671 and adopted the religious name of Anastasia. Khmelnytsky had two sons and four daughters. Khmelnytsky was buried on 25 August 1657 in St. Elijahs Church in Subotiv, which he himslelf had built.

Khmelnytsky’s greatest achievement in the process of national revolution was the Cossack Hetman state of the Zaporothian Host (1648-1782). His statesmanship was demonstrated in all areas of state-building – in the military. administration, finance, economics and culture .

THE BRITISH EDUCATION SYSTEM

STATE EDUCATION IN BRITAIN

All state schools in Britain are free, and schools provide their pupils with books and equipment for their studies. Nine million children attend 35.000 schools in Britain. Education is compulsory from 5-16 years. Parents can choose to send their children to a        nursery school or a pre-school playgroup to pre­pare them for the start of compulsory education. Children start primary school at 5 and continue until they are 11. Most children are taught together, boys and girls in the same class. At 11most pupils go to secondary schools called comprehensives which accept a wide range of children from all backgrounds and religious and ethnic groups. Ninety per cent of secondary schools in England, Scotland and Wales are co-educational. At 16 pupils take a national exam called 'GCSE' (General Certificate of Secondary Education) and then they can leave school if they wish .This is the end of compulsory education. Some 16-year-olds continue their studies in the sixth form at school or at a sixth form college. The sixth form prepares pupils for a national exam called 'A' level (advanced level) at 18.You need 'A' level to enter a university. Other 16-year olds choose to go to a college of further education to study for more practical (vocational) diplomas relating to the world of work, such as hairdressing, typing or mechanics. Universities and colleges of higher education accept students with 'A' levels from 18. Students study for a degree which takes on average three years of full-time study. Most students graduate at 21 or 22 and are given their degree at a special graduation ceremony.

PRIVATE EDUCATION

Seven per cent of British schoolchildren go to independent private schools called independent schools. There are 2.400 independent schools and they have been growing in number and popularity since the mid-1980s.

Parents pay for these schools, and fees vary from about Ј250 a term for a private nursery to Ј3.000 a term or more for a secondary boarding school (pupils board, i.e. live at the school). Most independent schools are called prep schools because they prepare the children for the Common Entrance Exam which they take at the age of 11. This exam is for entry into the best schools. The most famous schools are called 'public schools' and they have a long history and tradition. It is often necessary to put your child's name on a waiting list at birth to be sure he or she gets a place. Children of wealthy or aristocratic families often go to the same public school as their parents and their grandparents . Eton is the best known of these schools.

The majority of independent secondary schools, including public schools, are single-sex, although in recent years girls have been allowed to join the sixth forms of boys' schools. Independent schools also include religious schools (Jewish, Catholic, Muslim etc.) and schools for ethnic minorities.

BRITISH INDUSTRY

THE NORTH-SOUTH DIVIDE

The differences between the North and South have been linked to Britain's industrial past. Underline any sentences in the text which mention industrial factors. What other factors have added to this divide? Make a list using the text.

Are there any differences between regions in your country? Make a list of the geographical and historical reasons for the variations .

Since the 1970s the steady decline of manufacturing industries has led to the deserted factories, depressed towns and high unemployment in the areas where they were located. By contrast, the more rural South has experienced the growth of light industries and an increase of clerical and professional jobs. Most of the service industries have developed in southern regions, as well as high-tech firms in London and Cambridge areas. The increasing affluence of the South during the 1980s contrasted with the problems in the industrial cities of the North and Midlands where school-leavers could not find work.

This regional disbalance has been called the North-South Divide and when it was getting worse the word 'gap' was used by the media to explain the great differences in the standard of living of Britons. In the 1980s the government set up 'enterprise zones' in depressed areas and offered companies financial incentives (money/lower taxes) to move to these areas and provide jobs to the unemployed .There was also growing concern that the Channel Tunnel would attract a lot of business and money to the South-East, near its location, whilst the northern areas would not benefit.

At the end of the 1980s the government declared that it has solved the North-South Divide but critics protested that the gap between the regions continued to be a problem. The 1990's economic recession hit the service industries badly, consumers stopped spending and this has more effect on the affluent South than the North. London, in particular, suffered heavy job losses in retail, financial and banking services. It seemed to be a reversal of the North-South situation. Nevertheless the debate still continues. Are all Britons able to share the same standard of living and job opportunities? Will the new Europe be closer to the South but too far from the North?

MANUFACTURING

Manufacturing, construction and services

About 250 British industrial companies each have an annual turnover of over Ј500 million. Annual turnover of the biggest company , British Petroleum (BP), makes it the l1th largest industrial group in the world and the second largest in Europe. Five British firms are among the top 20 EU companies in terms of capital employed.

Small businesses, though, are making an increasing contribution to the economy. Between 1980 and 1993 the number of businesses, a large majority of them small firms, rose from 2.4 million to 3.6 million. Companies with fewer than 100 employees account for 50 per cent of the private sector workforce and 30 per cent of turnover. About 97 per cent of firms employ fewer than 20 people.

Manufacturing still has an important role in the economy. Britain excels in high-technology industries, such as pharmaceuticals, electronics , aerospace and offshore equipment, where British companies are among the world's largest and most successful. A selection of some of the major industries is described in this section.

Chemicals and Related Products

Britain's chemical industry is the third largest in Europe. Over half of its output is exported. Exports in 1994 were worth Ј18,700 million, compared with imports of Ј 14,500 million. Traditionally, Britain has been a major producer of basic industrial chemicals, such as basic organic and inorganic chemicals, plastics and fertilisers. In recent years the most rapid growth has been in specialised chemicals, pharma ­­ ceuticals and cosmetics. ICI is the sixth largest chemical company in the world and the world's largest paint manufacturer.

Britain's pharmaceutical industry is the world's fourth biggest exporter of medicines, accounting for around 12 per cent of the world market. Glaxo Wellcome became the largest pharmaceutical company in the world when Glaxo took over Wellcome in 1995. British firms have discovered and developed 13 of the world's 50 best-selling drugs, including Glaxo Wellcome's ulcer treatment Zantac and Zeneca's beta-blocker Tenormin. Other major developments pioneered in Britain are semi-synthetic penicillins and cephalosporins (both powerful antibiotics ) and new treatments for asthma, arthritis, migraine and coronary heart disease.

The British biotechnology industry is second only in pre-eminence to that of the United States. Biotechnology has enabled companies to manufacture products using genetic modification. Britain has made major advances in the development of drugs such as human insulin and interferons, genetically-engineered vaccines, the production of antibiotics by fermentation, agricultural products, such as infection-resistant crops, and medical diagnostic devices.

Mechanical Engineering

Machine-building is an area where British firms excel, especially in construction and earth-moving equipment, wheeled tractors, internal combustion engines, textile machinery, medical equipment, fork-lift trucks, pumps and compressors. Britain is one of the world's major producers of tractors, which account for around three-quarters of the output of agricultural equipment. It is the world's eighth largest producer of machine tools.

Electronics

Britain has the fourth largest electronics industry in the world. Products include computers, communications equipment and a large range of components.

As well as an extensive range of computer hardware systems and associated equipment, British firms devise computer applications software and are particularly strong in specialist markets, such as artificial intelligence, computer-aided design, mathematical software, geographical information systems and data visualisation. Major advances are being made by British firms and academic institutions in the field of 'virtual reality', a three-dimensional computer simulation technique with a host of industrial and other applications.

Motor Vehicles

Overseas-owned car companies are responsible for most car production in Britain. These, however, provide work for many indigenous component firms; this sector consists of nearly 4,000 companies.

Car production has recovered strongly following the recession. In 1994 nearly 1.5 million cars were manufactured, the highest number for 20 years – 619,000 cars were exported. Car output is dominated by Rover, Ford, Vauxhall, Peugeot-Talbot and three Japanese companies – Nissan, Toyota and Honda. The latter have invested heavily and introduced new management techniques and production methods.

Aerospace

Britain's aerospace industry is the third largest in the Western world. Sales amounted to Ј12,000 million in 1994 with exports contri­buting Ј7,500 million.

As the leading British exporter of manufactured goods, British Aerospace (BAe) produces both civil and military aircraft, as well as guided weapons and components. The company has a 20 per cent share in Airbus Industrie, which manufactures a family of

Airbus airliners for which BAe designs and supplies the wings. BAe is one of the world's top defence companies. Military aircraft include the vertical/short take-off and landing Harrier and the Hawk fast jet trainer. It is also a partner in multinational projects, including the Tornado combat aircraft and the Euro-fighter 2000, which had its maiden flight in 1994.

Among other manufacturers are Short Brothers of Belfast and Westland Helicopters. Over 1,()()() West-land helicopters are in service in 19 countries.

Rolls-Royce is one of the world's three prime manufacturers of aero-engines. Over 50,000 Rolls-Royce engines are in service with more than 300 airlines in over 100 countries. Its latest large engine, the Trent, powers the new generation of wide-body twin-engined airliners , such as the Boeing 777 and the Airbus A330.

Around one-third of the aerospace industry consists of aviation equipment. British firms have made significant technological advances in areas such as flight-deck controls and information displays, flight simulators and ejection seats. GEC-Marconi is the world's largest manufacturer of head-up displays.

The largest British space company is Matra Marconi Space UK which, with its French partner, is one of the world's leading space companies. The industry is strong in communications satellites and associated Earth stations and ground infrastructure equipment, and in the area of Earth observation.

Food and Drink

Britain has a large food and drink manufacturing industry, which has accounted for a growing proportion of total domestic food supply. Frozen and convenience foods, yoghurts, dairy desserts and instant snacks are some of the fastest-growing sectors of the food market. Soft drinks, with an annual turnover of Ј6,000 million, is (lie fastest growing sector of the grocery trade, and many innovative products are being introduced.

Scotch whisky is one of Britain's top export earners. There are 110 distilleries in Scotland.

Other Manufacturing

Other manufacturing industries include mineral and metal products, shipbuilding and marine engineering, tobacco, textiles and clothing, and paper, printing and publishing. British Steel is the fourth largest steel company in the world, producing about three-quarters of Britain's crude steel in 1994. In addition to its output of non-ferrous metals and their alloys, such as aluminium and copper, Britain is also a major producer of specialised alloys for the aerospace, electronic, petrochemical, nuclear and other fuel industries. It is the world's leading manufacturer and exporter of fine bone china.

The textile and clothing industries have around 13,000 firms, comprising a few large multi-process companies and two of the world's largest firms – Coats Viyella and Courtaulds Textiles - as well as a large number of small and medium-sized firms. Britain's wool textile industry is one of the most important in the world, and the country is also one of the world's leading producers of woven carpets.

CONSTRUCTION

Annual output of the construction industry is around Ј50,000 million. Most construction work is done by private firms, 98 per cent of which employ fewer than 25 people. A vast range of products is used in the construction process, from glass and bricks to tiles and bathroom fittings. Sales of construction materials were worth about Ј30,000 million in 1994, with exports amounting to Ј3,000 million. The most important recent construction project has been the Channel Tunnel the largest single civil engineering project ever undertaken in Europe.

British companies are engaged in many major projects throughout the world and have been in the forefront of innovative methods of management contracting and construction management. British contractors are undertaking, or have recently completed, work in 134 overseas countries. In 1994 they won new international business valued at Ј3,800 million. Important international contracts signed in 1994-95 included various joint ventures connected with the new airport in Hong Kong, a power station in Indonesia and city development contracts in Leipzig and Halle in Germany. British engineering consultants are engaged in projects in 130 countries.

SERVICE INDUSTRIES

Services account for two-thirds of Britain's GDP and over three-quarters of employment. The number of employees in services rose from over 13 million in 1983 to 16.5 million by June 1995.

Financial Services

Britain is a major financial centre, housing some of the world's leading banking, insurance, securities, shipping, commodities, futures and other financial services and markets. The markets for financial and related services have grown and diversified greatly. The heart of the industry is the collection of markets and institutions in and around the 'Square Mile' in the City of London. 'The City' has:

• a banking sector accounting for about a fifth of total international bank lending, with a larger number of overseas banks than in any other financial centre;

• one of the world's biggest international insurance markets;

• one of the world's largest stock exchanges;

• the largest foreign exchange market in I lie world, with an average daily turnover of about $300,000 million;

• important markets for transactions in commodities; and

• a full range of legal, accountancy and management consultancy services, which contribute to London's strength as a financial centre.

Retailing and Wholesaling.

In June 1995 the retail and wholesale trades employed nearly 3.6 million people. During recent years the large multiple retailers have grown in size, reducing numbers of stores but increasing outlet size and diversifying their product ranges. Four of the ten largest food retailers in Western Europe are British. The biggest supermarket groups are Tesco, J. Sainsbury, Argyll (principally Safeway) and Asda. These accounted for 40 per cent of food and drink sold in 1994-95.

Many towns and cities have purpose-built shopping centres. One of the first regional

out-of-town shopping centres was the Metro Centre at Gateshead in Tyne and Wear, which is the largest of its kind in Europe.

Information technology has become increasingly central to distribution and retailing. Computers monitor stock levels and record sales figures through electronic point-of-sale (EPOS) systems which read a bar code printed on the retail product. Several major EFTPOS (electronic funds transfer at point of sale) systems, enabling customers to pay for purchases using debit cards that automatically transfer funds from their bank account, are well established. The number of EFTPOS terminals is growing rapidly.

Tourism

Britain is the world's sixth leading tourist destination. Tourism contributes around Ј33,000 million a year to the economy and employs about 1.5 million people. In 1994 a record 21 million overseas visitors came to Britain and spent around Ј10,000 million. About 63 per cent of overseas visitors were from Europe and 17 per cent from North America.

The British Tourist Authority (BTA) promotes Britain overseas as a tourist destination. Tourist boards for England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland encourage the development and promotion of tourism within Britain and work with the BTA overseas.

Other Services

Other service industries include vehicle, vehicle parts and petrol retailing; hotels and catering; and a broad range of business services, such as computer services, advertising, market research and franchising .

Hotels and catering employ about 2.4 million people in Great Britain. There are 52,000 hotels in Great Britain, ranging from large businesses (such as Forte) to numerous guest houses and small hotels with fewer than 20 rooms. Britain's 100,000 restaurants offer cuisine from virtually every country in the world. Chinese, Indian, Italian and Greek restaurants are among the most popular. 'Fast food' restaurants, specialising in hamburgers, chicken, pizza and a variety of other foods, are becoming more and more widespread. About 77,000 public houses sell beer, wines, soft drinks and spirits to adults for consumption on the premises; most also provide hot and cold food.

Britain is one of the world's three leading countries for international conferences. London and Paris are the two most popular conference cities.

Britain is a major centre for creative advertising. Leading companies include Abbott Mead Vickers, BBDO,J. Walter Thompson, Leo Burnett , and OgiIvy and Mather Advertising. Spending on advertising totalled Ј10,200 million in 1994, of which 55 per cent was placed in the press and 28 per cent on television. Campaigns are planned by around 2,000 advertising agencies. The largest advertising expenditure is on food, household durables, cosmetics, office equipment, motor vehicles and financial services. The public relations industry has grown rapidly and is now the most developed in Europe.

Britain's economy is based primarily on private enterprise, with the private sector accounting for 79 per cent of output and 85 per cent of employment.

ECONOMIC PERFORMANCE

From 1981 to 1989 the British economy experienced eight years of sustained growth at an average annual rate of over 3 per cent. Subsequently, Britain, in common with other major industrialised nations, was severely affected by recession. However, the economy has been growing again since 1992. Growth has taken place across a broad front, with a major contribution coming from exports and, more recently, investment. The economic climate in 1995 was also charac­terised by a revitalised manufacturing sector, coupled with inflation at historically low levels, falling unemploy­ment, low average earnings growth and increased business confidence.

Inflation has declined substantially since the start of the 1990s. The Retail Prices Index (RPI), which records the price of goods and services purchased by households in Britain, was 2.9 per cent higher in January 1996 than a year earlier. Underlying inflation - RPI excluding mortgage interest payments-was 2.8 per cent. It has been below 3 per cent for almost two years, the longest period since the early 1960s.

Gross domestic product (GDP) rose by 3.9 per cent in 1994. The Government forecasts that GDP growth will slow to a more 'sustainable' rate, coming down to 3.25 per cent in 1995 and 2.75 per cent in 1996.

Growth in manufacturing output per head in Britain in the 1980s was faster than in all other leading industrialised countries, increasing by an average of 4.6 per cent a year. In 1994 it grew by 4.8 per cent and productivity in the economy as a whole rose by 3.5 per cent.

Employment is recovering following the recession. Between June 1993 and June 1995 the workforce in employment grew by 381,000 to 25.7 million. The long-term trend has been for a fall in full-time employment and a growth in part-time employment. Self-employment is increasing again, following a decline during the recession. About 3.3 million people are self-employed, 19 per cent more than in 1985. Unemployment has dropped by over 770,000 since the end of 1992. The level of unemployment -7.9 per cent of the workforce (2.2 million people) in January 1996 - is below the EU average. The number of working days lost as a result of industrial disputes in 1994 was the lowest on record.

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