Ýêîíîìèêî-ïðàâîâàÿ áèáëèîòåêà
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Ýêîíîìèêî-ïðàâîâàÿ áèáëèîòåêà |
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| Ó÷åáíèêîâ â áèáëèîòåêå - 334 Èùèòå æå ïðåæäå Öàðñòâà Áîæèÿ è ïðàâäû Åãî, è ýòî âñå ïðèëîæèòñÿ âàì. (Ìàòô.6:33) | |
The
following stages in the development of economic systems merely suggest the changes, which occurred in a few countries.
Some groups of people never developed all the stages set forth below, or
they may have had some of the stages existing side by side at the same time.
1.
Hunting-and-Fishing Stage
2.
Pastoral Stage
3.
Agricultural Stage
4.
Handicraft Stage
5.
Industrial or Manufacturing Stage.
In
the hunting-and-fishing stage, primitive man satisfied his daily needs directly from
nature. The hunting tribes moved from one location to another in search of food to
sustain them. The fishing tribes were more likely settled in one place as a
permanent home.
During
the pastoral stage, a man began to domesticate animals and wild grain for his own
use. The owner of the sheep, cattle, and goats spent their time in watching over
their animals and looking for fresh grassing grounds or for more abundant water
supply. During this stage, an individual’s wealth was measured by the size of his
herd.
The
English manor with a feudal basis predominant from the tenth to the fourteenth century affords a good example of the agricultural
stage. The whole country outside of the larger towns was divided into these
manors. There was the land outside the village. It was divided into three great
fields. One of them was sown with wheat, one with oats or barley or beans, while one
was left fallow. Each peasant was obliged to cultivate his land in accordance with
the rotation of crops followed by his neighbours.
A
peasant had to work two or three days a week - with additional days at planting and
harvest time–- on the lord’s pert of the estate. There were small quarterly
payments to be made in money, and miscellaneous dues (hens, eggs, oats). There were
still other services, of which the most important was carting.
evolution – åâîëþö³ÿ, ðîçâèòîê
to suggest – ïðîïîíóâàòè
to
occur – òðàïëÿòèñÿ
set forth – ïîÿñíþâàòè, ðåêîìåíäóâàòè
side by side – ïîðó÷
to exist – ³ñíóâàòè
Pastoral Stage – ïàñòîðàëüíèé (ïàñòóøèé)
Handicraft Stage – ïåð³îä ðîçâèòêó ðåìåñåë
directly from – áåçïîñåðåäíüî ç (â³ä)
to sustain – ï³äòðèìóâàòè, ï³äêð³ïëÿòè ñèëè
a permanent home – ïîñò³éíà äîì³âêà
abundant – áàãàòèé íà ùîñü
herd – ñòàäî, òàáóí
manor [‘mæn r] – ôåîäàëüíèé ìàºòîê
predominant – òîé, ùî ïåðåâàæàº
affords a good example – äຠõîðîøèé ïðèêëàä
to sow – ñ³ÿòè, çàñ³âàòè
oats – îâåñ
barley – ÿ÷ì³íü
fallow – çåìëÿ ï³ä ïàðîì
to be obliged – áóòè çîáîâ’ÿçàíèì
to cultivate – îáðîáëÿòè
in accordance with – â³äïîâ³äíî äî
rotation – ïåð³îäè÷íå ïîâòîðåííÿ
lords pert of the estate – óïðàâëÿþ÷èé ìàºòêîì
miscellaneous dues – ð³çíîìàí³òí³ ïîäàòêè
carting – ïåðåâåçåííÿ íà â³çêó.
1.
In the hunting-and-fishing
stage, primitive man satisfied his daily need ... .
2.
The fishing tribes were
more likely settled in one place ... .
3.
During this stage an
individual wealth was measured ... .
4.
The whole country outside
of the larger towns, was divided … .
5.
Each peasant was obliged
to cultivate his land ... .
6.
There were still other
series ... .
1.
What do the stages in the
development of economic systems suggest?
2.
What stages in the
development of economic systems can you point out?
3.
What way did a primitive
man satisfy his daily needs in?
4.
At what stage did a man
begin to domesticate animals and wild grain?
5.
What affords a good
example of the agricultural stage?
6.
Who was a lord? What
rights did he possess?
7.
How did each peasant
cultivate his land?
8.
How many days a week did a
peasant have to work on the lord?
1.
All groups of people
developed all the stages set forth below.
2.
In the hunting-and-fishing
stage, primitive man satisfied his daily needs not only from nature.
3.
During the pastoral stage,
a man began to domesticate animals and mild grain for his own use.
4.
The English manor with a
feudal basis predominant from the tenth to the
fourteenth century affords a good example of the agricultural
stage.
5.
The land was divided into
three great fields and all were sown with wheat, oats or barley.
6.
Each peasant cultivated
his land, as he liked.
7.
A peasant had to work on
the lord’s pert of the estate.
8.
There were quarterly
payments to be made only in money.
The system of capitalism began with the industrial revolution. Certain
features of capitalism
are identified with the following:
1. Private property. This means the exclusive right of an individual to
control wealth or income. Economic progress has sometimes
been hampered by the fear
that a man might not be allowed to read what he had sown.
2.
Freedom of enterprise. Free enterprise is the right of a person to make what
he likes and as he likes, or to enter any trade or profession.
3. Competition – The system of capitalism is based on competition. Our
modern society permits and encourages it. Competition
leads to improvements in
methods of production and in the articles produced. It results in greater output and
lower prices.
4.
Profits. Profits are the reward that comes to the entrepreneur as a result of
his efforts. If, after paying from the gross receipts of his business all the
expenses for wages interest, and rent due to the others, there is something left
over, then this belongs to him. Profits are the end result of a capitalist
enterprise – a contingent reward, on the degree of success of the business. What
leads the entrepreneur to perform his function is, not always profits, but the
chance of profits.
5. Laissez-faire. Adam Smith, the father of Economics understood
that the well-being of a
community was best served by a policy of governmental non-interference in economic
affairs. Smith believed that in looking after his own interests a business-man was
“led by an invisible hand” to look after the interest of society as a whole. But
popular opinion today insist that consumers must be protected from high monopolistic
prices, from shabby goods, from dangerous drugs.
Many
criticisms have been made of the capitalistic system in modern times. The individual
should be prepared to weigh for himself the validity of these criticisms.
One criticism of capitalism is that it leads to an unfair distribution
of wealth. Under this
system the rich get richer and the poor get poorer. The toil and the want of the
labouring classes are means of speeding and piling up the wealth of the capitalist
classes.
A
somewhat similar criticism of capitalism is that it thinks more of profits than of
social welfare.
The ability to possess great wealth and secure the income
from it without active participation in the management of business is a modern
condition. We know the following method of wealth
–
getting in society: the rendering of service to others or to
society for the sake of adequate reward in return, and the acquirement of gain for
one-self at the expense of others with practically no service rendered to society.
The latter method is now practised with success by the
majority of capitalism.
But
one might call attention to the case of Henry Ford. He undoubtedly accumulated
millions. But at the same time he
was a great
philanthropist. He satisfied the wants of millions for some form of cheap
transportation.
Another
inducement of capitalism is that it works without plan. Production and consumption are not co-ordinated. The labour of untold
men and women and of their machines is lost. Under the rule of business - as
usual, they shoot blindly without aim and without goal. They have knowledge of the
consumptive capacity of the country. Each plant is trying to sell all it can.
Capitalism has sometimes been blamed for the frequency of depressions. Over-production results from the lack of a planned economy. Over-production leads to the closing of factories, which, of course, means mess unemployment and all the evils associated with it. The business cycle of booms and panics began with the factory system.
Another
change against capitalism is that it has been responsible for the waste of our
natural resources. Big business “skims the skims” from the oil gushers, from the
wide-veined coal-bearing Rock, and from virgin forests.
identify – îòîòîæíþâàòè
private property – ïðèâàòíà âëàñí³ñòü
exclusive – âèíÿòêîâèé
wealth – áàãàòñòâî, äîñòàòîê
income – äîõîä
to hamper – ïåðåøêîäæàòè, çàâàæàòè
freedom of enterprise – ñâîáîäà ï³äïðèºìñòâà
competition – êîíêóðåíö³ÿ
to permit – äîçâîëÿòè
to encourage – íàäèõàòè, ñïðèÿòè
reward – íàãîðîäà
entrepreneur – ï³äïðèºìåöü
gross receipts – âàëîâ³ îäåðæàííÿ
expenses – âèòðàòè
a contingent reward – âèïàäêîâèé, ìîæëèâèé
laissez - faire [‘leisei’f ] – ïîë³òèêà íåâòðó÷àííÿ
well-being – äîáðîáóò
non-interference – íåâòðó÷àííÿ
dangerous drugs – íåáåçïå÷í³ ë³êè
validity – îáãðóíòîâàí³ñòü
toil – âàæêà ïðàöÿ
to pile up – íàãðîìàäæóâàòè
welfare – äîáðîáóò, äîñòàòîê
to possess – âîëîä³òè
to secure – ãàðàíòóâàòè, çàáåçïå÷óâàòè
for the sake of – çàðàäè ÷îãîñü
acquirement – íàáóòòÿ, îâîëîä³ííÿ
at the expense – çà ðàõóíîê
to call attention – ïðèâåðíóòè óâàãó
undoubtedly – áåç ñóìí³âó
inducement – ñòèìóë, ïðèìàíêà
consumptive capacity – ñïîæèâàöüêà ñïðîìîæí³ñòü
to blame – çâèíóâà÷óâàòè
oil gushers – ðîçëèâè íàôòè
to skim – çáèðàòè âåðøêè, íàõàïàòèñÿ.
1.
The system of capitalism
began ... .
2.
Certain features of
capitalism are private property, freedom of enterprise ... .
3.
Profits are the end result
... .
4.
But popular opinion today
insists that consumers ... .
5.
A somewhat similar
criticism of capitalism is that ... .
6.
Another inducement of
capitalism is that ... .
7.
Each plant is trying ... .
8.
Capitalism has sometimes
been blamed for ... .
9.
Over-production leads ...
.
10.
Another change against capitalism is that ... .
1.
What did the system of capitalism begin with?
2.
What does private property mean?
3.
What is freedom of enterprise?
4.
What is the system of capitalism based on?
5.
What does competition lead to?
6
.
What are profits?
7.
What do profits depend on?
8. How did Adam Smith understand the well-being of
a community?
9.
What does today’s popular opinion say about consumers’ protection?
10.
Which are the characteristic features of capitalism?
1.
The main features of
capitalism are competition and profits.
2.
Our modern society permits
and encourages competition.
3.
Profits are the end result
of a capitalist enterprise.
4.
Smith
believed that in looking after his own interests a businessman
was «led by an invisible»
hand to look after the interest of society as a whole.
5.
One criticism of
capitalism is that it leads to an unfair distribution of wealth.
6.
Capitalism thinks both of
profits and of social welfare.
7.
Both capitalism and
socialism work without plan.
8.
Under capitalism each
plant is trying to sell all it can.
9.
Over-production leads to
the closing of factories and mass unemployment.
The activities of a man are engaged largely in obtaining six major classes of goods-food, clothing, shelter and furniture, fuel, tools and materials of industry, and luxuries. In making provision for these things, we depend largely on physical factors. Man, for example, seeks shallow water near continents for abundant fish; they obtain coal oil and natural gas from beds and pools in the depths of earth; they obtain wood pulp for paper from our temperate forests; they get the wheat that provides the flour that gives us our daily bread from the level, fertile plains.
But
there are other factors that help to account for the speed or tardiness of a
nation’s development. There are the racial traits or customs of the people
–
the artistic ability of
the French, for example, or the leisurely habits of the Latin Americans. In the
production and distribution of goods, there is the advantage of an early start;
there is the matter of availability of labour and capital, as well as the degree of
skill of workers and technicians; and there is the attitude of the government –
through its control of tariffs and subsidies
–
towards economic
development.
Until
very years, industrial power has been concentrated largely in Anglo-America, Western
Europe, and the former USSR. Here were located
the so-called “rich” nations, whereas the “poor” or “developing”
nations stretched across a great part of the face of the earth. The West has
been well aware that the centre of gravity of world problems today is in Asia and
Africa. It is in these continents that are required agricultural and industrial
development, better education, better housing, and improved health services.
The
requirements of the new nations are great. But the resources remain largely
undeveloped. The people are still often illiterate but they seek enlightenment and
guidance. The responsibility of “rich” nations is still tremendous in spite of
what has already been accomplished. The old traditional world is dying; a radical
new world is being born.
to be engaged – áóòè çàéíÿòèì
to obtain – çäîáóâàòè, ïðèäáàòè
fuel – ïàëèâî, ïàëüíå
luxury – ðîçê³ø, ïðåäìåòè ðîçêîø³
shallow – ì³ëêîâîäíèé, íåãëèáîêèé
depth – ãëèáèíà
pulp – ïàïåðîâà ìàñà
flour – áîðîøíî, ìóêà
fertile – ðîäþ÷èé
tardiness – óïîâ³ëüíåííÿ
trait – øòðèõ, ðèñà
advantage – ïåðåâàãà
availability – ïðèäàòí³ñòü, äîñòóïí³ñòü
subsidy – ñóáñèä³ÿ, ï³ëüãà
to locate – ì³ñòèòèñÿ
to be aware – çíàòè, áóòè îá³çíàíèì, óñâ³äîìëþâàòè
gravity – âàæëèâ³ñòü, ñåðéîçí³ñòü
to require – âèìàãàòè, ïðîïîíóâàòè
to improve – ïîë³ïøóâàòè, óäîñêîíàëþâàòè
to remain – çàëèøàòèñü
illiterate – íåïèñüìåííèé
enlightenment – ïðîñâ³òà
tremendous – âåëè÷åçíèé
in spite of – íå çâàæàòè íà, âñóïåðå÷
to accomplish – çàâåðøóâàòè.
1.
The activities of a man
are engaged largely in obtaining ... .
2.
But there are other
factors that ... .
3.
In the production and
distribution of goods, there is ... .
4.
Until very years,
industrial power has been concentrated ... .
5.
The West has been well
aware that ... .
6.
The people are still often
illiterate but ... .
7.
The old traditional world
... .
1. The activities of a man are engaged largely in obtaining two major classes of goods - clothing, shelter.
2.
In making provision for
six major classes of goods, we depend largely on physical factors.
3.
There are only racial
traditions or customs of people that help to account for the speed or tardiness of a
nation’s development.
4.
So-called «rich» nations
were located in Anglo-America, Western Europe.
5.
The west has been well
aware that agricultural and industrial development, better education, better housing
and improved health services are required in Asia and Africa.
6.
The requirements of the
new nations are not great.
7.
The responsibility of «Rich»
nations for the new nations is still tremendous.
8.
The old traditional world
is dying: a radical New World is being born.
1.
What are the activities of
a man engaged in?
2.
Why do we depend on
physical factors in making provision?
3.
What helps us to account
for the speed on tardiness of
the
nations development?
4.
What is very important for
production and distribution of goods?
5.
Where are developing
nations located?
6.
What are the major
problems of developing countries?
7.
Why is the responsibility
of «rich» nations still tremendous?
Since
the World War II particularly, many nations have come to realise that it was not a
good thing for its people or its economy to be alone. Regional groups of many countries have therefore been established
to bring about improvement
–
to provide some measures
of economic integration. Among these groups have been the followings:
1/
Nations associated in G.A.T.T. (General Agreement on Trade and Tariffs). Many
countries entered this Agreement and made tariff concessions to one another. The
first Agreement was in 1947.
2/
E.F.T.A. (European Free Trade Association). Members of this Association reduced
duties on most industrial goods produced and sold among themselves.
3/ L.A.F.T.A. (Latin American Free Trade Association). Its members
agreed
to remove customs duties and other trade barriers at a minimum
reduction rate of eight per cent annually.
4/ A.P.L.A. (Alliance for Progress with Latin American). This alliance
was sponsored by
President Kennedy in 1961. Its aims were partly humanitarian and partly to offset
the influence of Cuba.
So long as Latin American partners did not expropriate American
owned properties, they
could receive large United States foreign appropriation for their economic
development.
5/
E. E. C. (European Economic Community) or the common Market. This group came into
existence on January 1, 1958.
Western
Europe has rolled up its sleeves and gone to work. The results has been an economic
miracle. Shattered by war, countries that once were enemies have banded together and the economic community
is growing as strong as steel that rolls from its factories. At the outset
there were six members - the Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg, France, West Germany
and Italy. The aim of the E.E.C. was to abolish all obstacles to economic growth
–
to secure a completely tariff-free internal Community. Tariffs were not all to be
abolished at one time, but on a gradual basis. But common tariffs were to be placed
on goods coming into the Community from other countries.
In
the first three years of its existence industrial production rose by 25 per cent
compared with 13 per cent in Great Britain and 8 per cent in the United States.
Foreign capital flowed into the Community in
increasing quantities. Some 500 American firms - big stores, automobile
plants, oil companies, etc. moved in and
established
themselves in the Common Market. Most jobs became available almost
immediately, wages improved. Other countries watched this transformation worth more
than passing interest; several supplications for membership in the Community were
made.
to be alone – áóòè îäèíîêèì, ñàìîòí³ì
to establish – âñòàíîâëþâàòè, çàñíîâóâàòè
to bring about – çä³éñíþâàòè, âèêëèêàòè
concession – ïîñòóïêà, êîíöåïö³ÿ
to reduce – çìåíøóâàòè, çíèæóâàòè
a minimum reduction rate – ì³í³ìàëüíèé òàðèô çíèæåííÿ
annually – ùîð³÷íî
alliance – ñîþç
partly to offset – ÷àñòêîâî êîìïåíñóâàòè
foreign appropriation – ³íîçåìíå àñèãíóâàííÿ
to come into existence – ïî÷àòè ³ñíóâàòè
to roll up sleeves – çàêà÷óâàòè ðóêàâà
an economic miracle – åêîíîì³÷íå äèâî
shattered by war – ðîçáèò³ âùåíò â³éíîþ
at the outset – ñïî÷àòêó
to abolish all obstacles – çíèùèòè âñ³ ïåðåøêîäè
to become available – ñòàòè äîñòóïíèì
several supplications – äåê³ëüêà ïðîõàíü.
1.
Regional
groups of many countries have therefore been established
...
–
... of economic
integration.
2.
Members of E.F.T.A ... on
most industrial goods produced and sold among themselves.
3.
Members of L.A.F.T.A
agreed ... and other trade barriers.
4.
The aims of A.P.L.A were
partly ... and partly ... the influence of Cuba.
5.
At
the outset there were ... the Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg,
France, West Germany and
Italy.
6.
The aim of the E.E.C. was
... to economic growth
–
... internal Community.
7.
Foreign capital ... in
increasing quantities.
8.
Most jobs became ... most
immediately, wages... .
1.
After World War II many
nations realised to integrate but not to be alone.
2.
Five regional groups have
been established to provide some measures of economic integration.
3.
Latin
American partners could receive large foreign appropriation
for their economic
development.
4.
Western Europe has rolled
up its sleeves and gone to work but there was no success.
5.
At the outset there were six members in the economic community.
6.
The aim of the E.E.C. was
to abolish all obstacles to economic growth.
7.
Common tariffs were
abolished on goods coming into the Community from other countries.
8.
In the first three years
of its existence the community achieved a great progress.
9.
American capital flowed
into the Community, there appeared new jobs.
1.
What have many nations
come to realise since the World War II?
2.
How many regional groups
have been established?
3.
What was the aim of
establishing regional groups?
4.
Why could Latin American
partners receive large foreign appropriation for their economic development?
5.
What countries were the first members in the economic community?
6.
What was the aim of the
E.E.C.?
7.
Were all tariffs abolished
at one time?
8.
Prove that the economic
community has been a great success since the first years of its existence?
Adam
Smith was a believer in the doctrine known as laissez-faire. It was Smith’s opinion that wealth could be most rapidly increased
and most fairly distributed by the simple process of leaving people to
follow the prompting of self-interest unrestrained either by the state or public
opinion.
The
story of conditions in the early English factories has been told many times. But it
may be prudent to recall the facts once again. There are still some people opposed
to social control of industry. The use of men, women, and children by factory owners
at the beginning of the 19-th century had all the earmarks of slave ownership
starvation brought the wives and daughters of the workmen to the factories and there
was no worry about wearing them out. Half-naked women were harnessed to draw carts
in the mines through passages two feet seven inches high. Children of eleven worked
twelve to fourteen hours a day in factories.
There
was often the same food for the children that the master gave his pigs. Irons were
fastened to the ankles of women and girls to keep them from running away. There were
adults broken down from toil at thirty years of age and the suicide rate was high.
Probably no form of human slavery was ever worse than this.
In
the face of such evils changes have been making for human betterment. There has been
an improving trend in public morality. Modern democratic governments make their
economic systems serve the best interests of their citizens. All people should have
equality of opportunity. The state should safeguard the health and well being of its
men, women, and children. The individual should be free to choose his own work
without interference, have the right to own property, and receive the just reward of
his labour.
to follow the prompting of self-interest – íàñë³äóâàòè ï³äêàçêàì ñâîºêîðèñëèâîñò³
unrestrained – íåñòðèìàíèé, íåâãàìîâíèé
prudent – ðîçñóäëèâèé
to recall – çãàäóâàòè, íàãàäóâàòè
opposed – íàñòðîºíèé ïðîòè ÷îãîñü
earmark – òàâðî, êëåéìî
starvation – ãîëîä
to harness – çàïðÿãàòè
to draw carts – òÿãíóòè â³çêè
passage – ïðîõ³ä, ïðî¿çä
ankle – ê³ñòî÷êà (íà íîç³)
the suicide – ñàìîâáèâñòâî
break down – ö³ëêîâèòå çíåñèëåííÿ
evil – ëèõî, çëî
equality of opportunity – ð³âí³ñòü ìîæëèâîñòåé
to safeguard – îõîðîíÿòè, ãàðàíòóâàòè
just reward – ñïðàâåäëèâà âèíàãîðîäà
1.
There are still some
people opposed ... .
2.
Half-naked women were
harnessed to draw ... .
3.
Irons were fastened to the
ankles of ... .
4.
In the face of such evils
... .
5.
Modern democratic
governments make ... .
6.
The state should safeguard
... .
1.
Adam Smith didn’t
believe that wealth could be most rapidly increased and most fairly distributed.
2.
There are a lot of people
opposed to social control of industry.
3.
The use of men, women and
children by factory owners at the beginning of the 19-th century had all the
earmarks of slave ownership.
4.
Children had to work to
fourteen hours a day in factories.
5.
There was often the same
food for the children that the master gave his pigs.
6.
Probably no form of human
slavery was ever worse that this.
7.
There has not been an
improving trend in public morality.
8.
Modern democratic
governments make their economic systems serve the best interests of their citizens.
9.
All people should not have
equality of opportunity.
10.
The state should safeguard the health and well being of its men, women and
children.
1.
What was Smith’s opinion as a believer in the doctrine known as laissez-faire?
2.
Why may it be prudent to recall the facts of conditions in the early English
factories?
3.
What can you say about the conditions in the early English factories?
4.
What were the conditions of children’s labour?
5.
What is the role of modern democratic governments on the control of modern industry?
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